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The supercontinent that existed about 300 million years ago, containing all of Earth's landmasses joined together.
This scale, ranging from 1 to 10, measures a mineral's resistance to scratching, with talc at the bottom and diamond at the top.
Hot molten rock found beneath Earth's surface, which becomes something else entirely once it erupts from a volcano.
These impressive geological features, found at Carlsbad Caverns and Mammoth Cave, hang from cave ceilings like stone icicles.
The rigid outer layer of Earth, broken into tectonic plates, includes both the crust and the uppermost part of the mantle.
This type of rock forms when existing rocks are transformed by intense heat and pressure without melting, like marble from limestone.
Scientists believe this layer at Earth's center is solid despite temperatures exceeding 5,000°C, kept solid by immense pressure.
This black, glass-like volcanic rock forms when lava cools so rapidly that crystals don't have time to form.